SIMPLE GUIDE FOR RESEARCHERS WHO NEVER DID IT BEFORE

[White Knight]

Useful websites:

Free BMD - leads to FreeCen, FreeREG
http://www.CityofLondon.gov.uk/corporat ... lregisters
familysearch.org
http://www.1901censusonline.com
Genuki+"county"+bishops transcripts/church records
dayofbirth.co.uk
http://www.searchforancestors.com - for Surname Origin and Last Name Meanings
http://www.ons.gov.uk for main National Archives Site
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk
abney park cemeteries trust

familysearch contains the 1881 census, IGI which is a register of baptisms and marriages.
also a new pilot project of digitised original images, non-indexed,
and 1841 and 1861 censuses, to view image you need credits for FindMyPast as you get directed there.

http://www.1901censusonline.com
1841 1851 1861 1871 1891 1901 census returns - you can do a free name search. To view image you need credits for National Archives, you can buy vouchers for £5 which last six months, or you can set up a credit card account.

Or, a body could visit a county records office and study microfilm records of births marriages and deaths, all free if you do it yourself :))))

Also there are Genuki sites for most counties and you can look for Genuki+"county"+Bishops Transcripts. For example, Genuki+Monmouthshire has Bishop Transcripts records online going back to the 1700s.

Bookmarking Threads : If you’re not sure how to do this - look at the left side of your screen and you will see a yellow box with a man in a top hat. Open the useful thread(s) you want, and click on ‘Bookmark This’. Click ‘My Bookmarks’ and the threads you have selected should be there.

If you click on ‘My Threads’ all the threads you have either started yourself or added to will be listed there. If you want to remove any of your own threads, open the thread and click on Delete in the first posting box. If you want to remove someone else’s thread from your list, you have to delete your posting to that thread.

Don’t be afraid to Google, there is a wealth of information on the internet, you don’t have to rely on asking on the Tips or Records Office boards and waiting for a reply. But the people who use Tips & Records Office are all knowledgeable and most of them know a lot more than I do, plus they can do census look ups if you are really stuck.

To find out what is on a certificate you will have to buy the certificate I am afraid (ordering details are in the genealogy notes doc), but there will usually be a parish record to view at a county records office, or certificates might be cheaper from the registrar’s office if you know which registrar. The parish records now are mostly on microfilm; many churches no longer let the public handle original records.

Google for (and add to your Favourites)
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/

This site has many useful records to access. It also holds the 1841, 1851, 1861, 1871, 1891 and 1901 census returns. The 1901 census allows for a free Name search. The other census returns allow you to do a limited free name search. My experience is that the free searches often provide enough information to avoid having to pay to view the Image. If you have to view the image, you can pay by credit card by opening an account, or buying vouchers which have a six month life (last I heard).

A couple of computer tips : you should clear your temporary internet pages every day because otherwise they build up and slow down your pc. Click on Tools / Internet Options / Delete Temp Files. Also unless you think you will need to keep History, set that to Zero. You can delete your cookies as well, if you don’t mind resetting them next time you use your pc. Every site you visit dumps a cookie on your hard drive. Some cookies are useful, like the ones for Genes or Hotmail, or familysearch. I have my cookies organised inside my AVP, and only the unauthorised cookies get deleted.

The other tip is : if you are copying from a website, you can instantly remove hyperlinks by copying into Wordpad or Notepad, then copying again into a Word doc. This is especially useful if you are copying info from the Free BMD.

To find Wordpad or Notepad - click on Start, select All Programs, then hover the mouse over Accessories. A box will appear with various options including Notepad or Wordpad.

[White Knight]

PROHIBITED MARRIAGES

Forbidden degrees of relationship
Other prohibitions
Exceptions for certain step-relatives and relatives-in-law
Marriage of cousins
Further information

Forbidden Degrees of Relationship
Throughout the United Kingdom and the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man, the law forbids certain blood relatives, step-relatives and relatives-in-law from getting married. These restrictions are officially know as forbidden degrees of relationship. The prohibitions apply to illegitimate as well as legitimate relationships. There are exceptions relating to certain step-relatives and relatives-in-law, which are explained later in this article.

A man may not marry his:
Mother (also step-mother, former step-mother, mother-in-law, former mother-in-law, adoptive mother or former adoptive mother)
Daughter (also step-daughter, former step-daughter, daughter-in-law, former daughter-in-law, adoptive daughter or former adoptive daughter)
Sister (also half-sister)
Father's mother (grandmother)
Mother's mother (grandmother)
Father's father's former wife (step-grandmother)
Mother's father's former wife (step-grandmother)
Son's daughter (granddaughter)
Daughter's daughter (granddaughter)
Wife's son's daughter (step-granddaughter)
Wife's daughter's daughter (step-granddaughter)
Son's son's wife (grandson's wife)
Daughter's son's wife (grandson's wife)
Father's sister (aunt)
Mother's sister (aunt)
Brother's daughter (niece)
Sister's daughter (niece)

A woman may not marry her:
Father (also step-father, former step-father, father-in-law, former father-in-law, adoptive father or former adoptive father)
Son (also step-son, former step-son, son-in-law, former son-in-law, adoptive son or former adoptive son)
Brother (also half-brother or step-brother)
Father's father (grandfather)
Mother's father (grandfather)
Mother's mother's former husband (step-grandfather)
Father's mother's former husband (step-grandfather)
Son's son (grandson)
Daughter's son (grandson)
Husband's daughter's son (step grandson)
Husband's son's son (step grandson)
Son's daughter's husband (granddaughter's husband)
Daughter's daughter's husband (granddaughter's husband)
Father's brother (uncle)
Mother's brother (uncle)
Brother's son (nephew)
Sister's son (nephew)


In Scotland, a man may not marry his great-grandmother or great-granddaughter and a woman may not marry her great-grandfather or great-grandson.

[White Knight]

Other Prohibitions

You cannot get married in the UK or the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man if either of you are under the age of 16. Please read our article on minimum age and parental consent for details of the parental consent requirements.

You must both also be free to marry, that is, not already married and you must also be of different sex at birth. This applies even if one of you has undergone gender modification surgery.

Exceptions for Certain Step-Relatives and Relatives-in-Law
In England, Scotland and Wales (not Northern Ireland, Isle of Man, Guernsey and Jersey) the Marriage Act, 1986, allows for certain step-relatives and relatives-in-law to marry.

Step-Relatives
Step-relatives may marry provided they are at least 21 years of age. The younger of the couple must at no time before the age of 18 have lived in the same household as the older person. Neither must they have been treated as a child of the older person's family.

Relatives-in-Law

Although a man may marry his sister-in-law and a woman may marry her brother-in-law, other relatives-in-law may marry provided they are at least 21 years of age and the family members involved in creating the in-law relationship are both dead. For example, if a man wishes to marry his daughter-in-law, both his son and his son's mother must be dead. In England and Wales, marriages under this Act are not permitted with the calling of banns but can take place in a church on the authority of a superintendent registrar's certificate without licence.

Marriage of Cousins

Despite the long list of degrees of forbidden relationship, you can marry a cousin
(courtesy of Henry VIII who changed the law to marry his cousin!). However, it would be sensible for you both to consult your GP to ensure that there are no factors in your family's health records that would make your decision to have children inadvisable on medical grounds.

Further Information

If you are still unsure of your situation and require further clarification of whom you can and cannot marry, please contact a registrar. You can usually find details of your local register office under the entry of Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages in your telephone directory. Alternatively, you can telephone the relevant national office asking for the marriages section. Their telephone numbers are:

Registrar General for England and Wales, 01704-569824
General Register Office for Scotland, 0131-314 4447
General Register Office for Northern Ireland, 028-9025 2000
Registrar General for Guernsey, 01481-725277
Superintendent Registrar for Jersey, 01534-502335
General Register Office for the Isle of Man, 01624-687039



You can marry a step-sibling - as long you are 21 or over, and as long as you were not raised in the same household from childhood :

'Step-relatives may marry provided they are at least 21 years of age. The younger of the couple must at no time before the age of 18 have lived in the same household as the older person. Neither must they have been treated as a child of the older person's family'.

It is permissible for a man to marry his mother in law as long as his wife is deceased - its the same principle as a man wishing to marry his daughter in law --- both his son and the mans wife must be deceased :

'Although a man may marry his sister-in-law and a woman may marry her brother-in-law ......................................

... other relatives-in-law may marry provided they are at least 21 years of age and the family members involved in creating the in-law relationship are both dead. For example, if a man wishes to marry his daughter-in-law, both his son and his son's mother must be dead. In England and Wales, marriages under this Act are not permitted with the calling of banns but can take place in a church on the authority of a superintendent registrar's certificate without licence.

These marriages cannot take place in a church but are allowed in a register office.

The 1907 Marriage Act removed no. 17 from the original forbidden list (Wife's sister and Husband's brother), provided the first spouse in each case was deceased. Further changes followed in 1921, 1931 and 1949:

The 1921 Marriage Act removed no. 18 (Brother's wife and Sister's husband) provided brother or sister in each case was deceased.

The 1931 Marriage Act removed 6, 7, 8 and 9 (Aunt-in-law and Uncle-in-law) and 27, 28, 29 and 30 (Niece-in-law and Nephew-in-law), provided the relevant Uncle, Aunt, Niece, and Nephew were dead.

The 1949 Marriage Act confirmed the previous 3 acts and specifically included 'half blood' relatives.

[White Knight]

MARRIAGE LAWS

Church of England Marriages
The regulations for marrying in the Church of England are different to those that govern civil marriages. Generally you can only marry in your local parish church - so if you and your partner live in two different parishes you will have the choice of either. You can only marry at a church outside your own parish if you are a regular worshipper there and on the electoral Role for that parish. The legal preliminaries for Church of England marriages are known as the 'Banns of Marriage' - your officiating minister will arrange these for you.
If you wish to marry at a church other than the Church of England or Wales, e.g. a Roman Catholic church or Baptist, similar rules apply. You either need to be:
*A resident in the local registration district covered by the church
*A regular worshipper at the church.
The law does not allow for a civil marriage to take place in a private house, in open air, a tent or marquee, or in any other movable structure, such as a boat or hot air balloon. Neither can a civil marriage take place in any building that has a past or current connection with any religion. Recent publicity has highlighted that there will be a more flexible approach to marriage locations and times in the future. Unfortunately this can only happen after the law is changed, and that is probably several years away. In the meantime the above restrictions apply.

Nonconformist Church Marriages
The legal preliminaries for Non-conformist church marriages are arranged by the Superintendent Registrar in the area in which you live. Some Non-conformist churches will require a Registrar to be present at your marriage. Your Minister will advise you if this is necessary. If you do require a Registrar to be in attendance please contact the District Office as soon as possible to check their availability on your chosen date.
Marriages in Protestant Churches other than the Church of England follow similar procedures to marriages in the Roman Catholic Church. The legal requirements to be fulfilled are those that apply to civil marriages. However, if the church is in a different registration district to where you live, you need to prove to the superintendent registrar that the church is your normal place of worship. If you cannot do this, you will be required to give notice in the registration district in which the church is situated after having met the necessary residency requirement. If there is no church of your denomination in the registration district in which you live, you will be permitted to marry in a church in the nearest registration district that has one.
A superintendent registrar will need to attend the ceremony if the minister is not authorised to register marriages. If the church in which you intend to marry is not registered for the solemnisation of marriages, you must arrange for a civil ceremony beforehand to comply with the requirements of the law.

Quaker Marriages
Quaker marriages require an application to be made to the registering officer at the Society of Friends' monthly meeting where the marriage ceremony is to take place. If only one partner is a member of the Society, the other will be asked to state that they are in sympathy with the nature of the marriage and they must provide letters of recommendation from two other members. Once the formalities have been completed, the registering officer will issue a form that needs to be taken to the superintendent registrar when you give notice.
The legal requirements to be fulfilled are those that apply to civil marriages. However, if the building in which you wish to marry is in a different registration district to where you live, you need to prove to the superintendent registrar that the building is your normal place of worship. If you cannot do this, you will be required to give notice in the registration district in which the building is situated after having met the necessary residency requirement. If there is no building in the registration district in which you live, you will be permitted to marry in a building in the nearest registration district that has one.
(Quaker cont’d) Once you have obtained your certificate of marriage from the superintendent registrar, you will need to produce it on the day of the marriage ceremony. For further information and advice please contact the Religious Society of Friends at 173-177 Euston Road, London, NW1 2BJ. Tel: 020-7663 1000.

[White Knight]

THE RIGHT NAME FOR THE COUSIN

Conversation on the subject 'who is related to whom' bogs down over terminology, particularly when it comes to defining cousins.

Your first cousin is your parents' brother's or sister's child. However, the first cousin's child is not your second cousin, but your first cousin one removed. The child of the first cousin once removed is your first cousin twice removed, and his child is your first cousin three times removed.

Your second cousin is your grandparents' brother's or sister's grandchild. That second cousin's child is your second cousin once removed, and his child is your second cousin twice removed, and so on.

Your third cousin is your great-grandparents' brother's or sister's great-grandchild. The third cousin's child is your third cousin once removed, and his child is your third cousin twice removed.

Other Occasionally Misunderstood Terms

Siblings: Parents in common, brothers and sisters

Grandnephew and Grandniece: the grandchild of your brother or sister

Grandaunt or Granduncle: the brother or sister of your grandparent

Great-Grandaunt or Great-Granduncle: the sister or brother of your great-grandparents

Stepfather or Stepmother: the husband of your mother or the wife of your father by a subsequent marriage

Stepchild: the child of your husband or wife by a former marriage

Stepsister or Stepbrother: the child of your stepfather or stepmother

Half Sister or Half Brother: the child of your mother and stepfather or the child of your father and stepmother, or of either parent by a former marriage

In-Laws: your connections by the law of marriage (as distinct from relatives by blood) in particular, your husband's or wife's relatives and your own brother's wife or sister's husband

Ancestor: the person from whom you descend directly, such as a grandparent or a great-grandparent

Descendant: the person who descends directly from you, such as a grandson or granddaughter

Lineal Relations: those in a direct line of ascent or descent, such as a grandfather or granddaughter

Collateral Relations: those relatives who are linked by a common ancestor, such as aunts, uncles, or cousins

Connexions: those who have a relative in common but who are not themselves related by blood.



Now the Easy Version :

Brothers and Sisters Siblings
Children 1st cousins
Grandchildren 2nd Cousins
Great grandchildren 3rd Cousins
Gt Gt grandchildren 4th Cousins
Gt Gt Gt grandchildren 5th Cousins
Gt Gt Gt Gt grandchildren 6th Cousins

One generation before or after, is “Once Removed”
Two generations before/after are “Twice Removed”, etc.

These days most people do not use the term “Grand niece” or “Grand nephew”, or Grand Great Niece etc. The word Grand has been popularly replaced by Great.

[White Knight]

ROMAN NUMERALS FOR REGISTRATION DISTRICTS

1837-1851 (Roman numerals)
Ref.No. Registration District
------ ---------------------
I London & Middlesex
II London & Middlesex
III London & Middlesex
IV London & Surrey
V Kent
VI Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire & Hertfordshire
VII Hampshire & Sussex
VIII Dorset, Hampshire & Wiltshire
IX Cornwall & Devon
X Devon & Somerset
XI Gloucestershire, Somerset & Warwickshire
XII Essex & Suffolk
XIII Norfolk & Suffolk
XIV Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire & Suffolk
XV Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire & Rutland
XVI Oxfordshire, Staffordshire & Warwickshire
XVII Staffordshire
XVIII Gloucestershire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire & Worcestershire
XIX Cheshire, Derbyshire & Flintshire
XX Lancashire
XXI Lancashire & Yorkshire
XXII Yorkshire
XXIII Yorkshire
XXIV Durham & Yorkshire
XXV Cumberland, Westmorland, Lancashire & Northumberland
XXVI Brecknockshire, Carmarthenshire, Glamorganshire, Herefordshire,
Monmouthshire, Pembrokeshire, Radnorshire & Shropshire
XXVII Anglesey, Caernarvonshire, Cardiganshire, Denbighshire, Flintshire,
Merionethshire & Montgomeryshire

[White Knight]

DEATH CERTIFICATES

Birth dates (rather than Age at Death) were included in Death Certificates from 1969.

This is on the ONS site :

Stillbirths
Obtaining Stillbirth Certificates

Due to the sensitive nature of stillbirth registrations, the procedure for ordering a certificate of the entry differs from other types of certificates. We will only send out the application form after we have been contacted by phone or in writing by the mother or father (if he is named on the certificate). In cases where the parents are deceased, a brother or sister can apply if they can provide their parents’ dates of death.

The cost of the certificate is £7.

Phone +44 (0)845 603 7788
Opening hours: Monday to Friday 9am to 5pm

Or write to us at:
General Register Office
PO Box 2
Southport
Merseyside


ST ANDREWS BY THE WARDROBE :

The history of St. Andrew's dates back to the thirteenth century when it was associated with Baynard's Castle, a royal residence that has long since disappeared. When King Edward III moved his state robes and other effects from the Tower of London to a large building close by, St. Andrew's became better known for its connection with the Great Wardrobe. The name stayed to specify its location although the King's store room is now only remembered in Wardrobe Place






ST GEORGE IN THE EAST (as opposed to St Geo Southwark & St Geo Hanover Sq)

St. George in the East is east of Whitechapel, between Stepney, Shadwell and Wapping. The church of St. George in the East with its 160 ft tower, was built in 1714-29 to the designs of Nicholas Hawksmoor, and created a separate parish from Stepney.



BEFORE 1929 GIRLS COULD BE MARRIED AT 12 YRS AND BOYS AT 14YRS

In the 1860s the age of consent was twelve years old. Some people were concerned that young girls were being sold to brothels. They became involved in the campaign against the white slave trade and in 1875 the House of Commons agreed to raise the age of consent to thirteen.

Campaigners were not satisfied with this change and continued to argue for further reform. In 1885 William Stead and Bramwell Booth of the Salvation Army joined forces to expose what they believed was an increase in child prostitution. In July 1885, Stead purchased Eliza Armstrong, a thirteen year-old daughter of a chimney-sweep, to show how easy it was to procure young girls for prostitution. Stead published an account of his investigations in the Pall Mall Gazette entitled Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon.
In September, William Stead and five others were charged with unlawfully kidnapping a minor and committed for trial at the Old Bailey. Stead was found guilty and was imprisoned for three months in Holloway Gaol. As a result of the publicity that the Armstrong case generated, Parliament in 1885 passed the Criminal Law Amendment Act that raised the age of consent from thirteen to sixteen, strengthened existing legislation against prostitution and proscribed all homosexual relations. ( courtesy of C4 )

Legal Age for Marriage

Roman law gave the minimum age for marriage as that of puberty which was 14 for boys and 12 for girls; these remained the legal age for marriage until the late 19th Century in Britain though that for girls seemed to be assumed also to be 14. However most did not marry until 18 or older though the Manx have always had a reputation for early marriages. For parties under 21 permission of parents and/or guardians was required. Generally if you find a marriage involving a young minor look for a corresponding marriage settlement as these were generally family arrangements to safeguard the transmission of land. Sometime you will find permission of both one parent and a guardian - this apparently 'impossible' combination, which arises from the considerable differences in Manx law from English law, indicates the death of one natural parent and a remarriage (generally of the woman), the guardian would be appointed to safeguard the interest of the deceased partner's family in the transfer of property to the children.

Legal Age for Marriage "Before Hardwickes Marriage act of 1753 there was no legal age of marriage, except during the 1650's when it was sixteen for `men' and fourteen for women'. In 1753 it was fixed at fourteen for men and twelve for women, and remained at those ages until the Age of Marriage Act in 1929, which raised the age to sixteen for both."
from the Family Tree Detective by Colin D. Rogers . Manchester University Press

[White Knight]

FAMILY CREST

Just because you have a particular surname, does not mean you are descended from the family that was granted a Family Crest.

Many armigerous families are extremely old, certainly pre 1066. For 500 years they had serfs, who had no surname - they belonged to the Lord of the Manor and didnt NEED a surname.

When surnames became more useful for ordinary people, they often took the name of the Manor as their surname - and many ancient villages were Manors.

So the fact that your surname is Bloggs doesnt necessarily indicate that you came from the great landowning Bloggs family - your ancestors may have been humble serfs on the Manor, who owed their very existence to the Lord of the Manor.

I believe it is illegal to display a Coat of Arms to which you are not entitled - and you would KNOW if you were entitled to it. And the rightful owner of the Family Crest might be exceedingly miffed to see you displaying a Family Crest to which you had no entitlement.

Crests on the net is an American thing - they do not seem to understand the nuances of Crests and Arms and can produce one for anyone at all. Whether its yours or not is another thing entirely - probably not!

Its a bit of fun - don't take it seriously and certainly don't hand over a penny.


19THc EDUCATION
In 1870 schooling became compulsory for boys under 10 years old, but it did not come into force until 10 years later. Girls were not legally bound to attend school until about 1910.

"The Code of Regulations of 1871 created an infant stage below Standard 1 for the 5-7 age range, so seven became the age of transfer from the infant school or department to the elementary school. Even as late as 1930 only half of 5-7 year olds were in infant schools."
from an article by Gillard D (2007) Education in England: a brief history http://www.dg.dial.pipex.com/history/


if searching newspaper archives :

Jim Coyle
Public Services
British Library Newspapers
Colindale Avenue
London
NW9 5HE
UK
Tel: +44 (0)20 7412 7353
Fax: +44 (0)20 7412 7379
Email: newspaper@bl.uk

If trying to find out about army service :

British Army WWI Medal Rolls
British Army WWI Service Records
British Army WWI Pensions
also the national archives web site
and if they died in the war the CWGC

IRREGULAR MARRIAGES IN SCOTLAND

That does not mean that it was in any way invalid, simply that it did not happen in
the approved form. Until 1940 the Law of Scotland recognised 3 forms of "irregular marriage", one of which was "Marriage by Declaration". All that this required was for the couple to simply declare that they were married. Strictly speaking, they did not even need to have witnesses to the declaration (although it would probably be a good idea!).

Until 1940, there was nothing like the present-day "Civil Marriage", so anyone wanting to marry without going to church had to make use of this form of "irregular marriage". That left them with a problem, however. The marriage would have been recognised by a Scots court if there had ever subsequently been a divorce or a contested will, but such irregular marriages effectively bypassed a different part of the Law, namely the statutes requiring all marriages to be registered with the Registrar of the appropriate Registration District. If they did not register the marriage, they would be liable to a fine.

The mechanism for correcting this appears to have been an appearance before the Sheriff (who, in Scotland, is a judge, not a policeman). He would examine the witnesses to the Declaration, and if he was satisfied that a valid (if irregular) marriage had taken place, he would supply a Warrant, armed with which the happy couple could satisfy the requirement to register.

[White Knight]

SHOEMAKERS / CORDWAINERS

Apparently the Keeper of the Boot holds records of shoemakers and where they were born etc:
The Keeper of the Boot and Shoe collection
Central Museum
Guildhall
Northampton
NN1 1DP.

The Boot and Shoe collection was recently awarded Designated Status as a pre-eminent collection of national importance. Its strength lies in its scope and range including everything from fine historic footwear to cast iron machinery, from watercolours to wooden hand tools, from original documents to button hooks and shoe laces. The collection includes:

* Footwear, more than 12,000 items ranging from ancient Egyptian material to contemporary design
* Wearing accessories, including buckles, laces, shoe horns, trees, spats, leggings and polish
* Shoemaking tools, machines and accessories including wax, nails and thread
* Material from the retail trade including furniture and fittings from shops, window display fittings and a range of advertising material
* Documentary material including trade catalogues and journals, posters, postcards, books, documents and photographs
* Fine and decorative art including paintings and prints depicting shoes and shoemaking as well as representations of the theme in other media
* Index of shoemakers and shoemaking firms from the Roman period onwards
* Index of concealed shoes; shoes hidden in buildings to bring good luck

The footwear collection is based at Northampton Museum & Art Gallery. Access to any items currently in storage may be obtained by telephoning 01604 837282.
There is also a specialist reference library.
All found via:
http://www.northampton.gov.uk/museums

[White Knight]

The term 'Cordwainer' is an Anglicization of the French word cordonnier, introduced into our language after the Norman invasion of England in 1066. The word itself is derived from the city of Cordoba, in the south of Spain, a stronghold of the mighty Omeyyad Kalifs until its fall in the 12th century. Moorish Cordoba was celebrated for two staple trades in the early Middle Ages, silversmithing and the production of cordouan(cordovan)leather, called 'cordwain' in England. Originally made from the skin of the Musoli goat, then found in Corsica, Sardinia, and elsewhere, this leather was 'tawed' with alum after a method supposedly known only to the Moors. English Crusaders brought home much plunder and loot, including the finest leather the English shoemakers had ever seen. Gradually cordouan, or cordovan leather became the material most in demand for the finest footwear in all of Europe.

The English term cordwainer, meaning shoemaker, first appears in 1100. By the late 13th century a distinction grew in England between Cordwainers. proper, called alutari, who used only alum 'tawed' cordwain, and another class of shoemakers called basanarii, who employed an inferior 'tanned' sheepskin which was prohibited for footwear apart from long boots. Since this period the term cordouan, or cordovan leather, has been applied to several varieties of leather. Today cordovan leather is a 'vegetable tanned' horse 'shell,' and like the Medieval cordwain is used only for the highest quality shoes.

Since the Middle Ages the title of Cordwainer has been selected by the shoemakers themselves, and used rather loosely; however, generally it always refers to a certain class of shoe and boot-makers. The first English guild of shoemakers who called themselves 'Cordwainers' was founded at Oxford in 1131. 'Cordwainers' was also the choice of the London shoemakers, who had organized a guild before 1160, and the Worshipful Company of Cordwainers has likewise used this title since receiving their first Ordinances in 1272.

First Cordwainers in America
The first 'Cordwainers,' or shoemakers, to arrive in America came to Jamestown, Virginia, the first permanent English settlement in this continent established in 1607. Captain John Smith, an alleged Cordwainer himself, was first among the leaders of the settlement, from which began the overseas expansion of the English speaking peoples as the earliest outpost of the British Empire, and the first beginnings of the United States of America. Captain Smith's historic adventure of settlement was, in part, supported by profits made in the English shoe trade.

Shoemakers, tanners, and other tradesmen had arrived in Jamestown by 1610, and the Secretary of Virginia had recorded the flourishing shoe and leather trades there as early as 1616. The first shoemaker to arrive in America, whose name has been preserved, was Christopher Nelme, who had sailed from Bristol, England and arrived in Virginia in 1619. Nearly one year later, when the first Pilgrim settlers landed in Massachusetts, they relied upon the colony in Virginia for several vital commodities and when the first shoemakers arrived there, in 1629, it is likely that they survived in part on Virginia leather until their own tanners were established. Throughout the late 17th century, Virginian exported her leather to New England, initially supplying the shoe trade which boomed there after the 1760's.

'Cordwainer' not 'Cobbler'
One distinction preserved by Cordwainers since the earliest times is, that a Cordwainer works only with new leather, where a Cobbler works with old. Cobblers have always been repairers, frequently prohibited by law from actually making shoes. Even going so far as to collect worn-out footwear, cut it apart, and remanufacture cheap shoes entirely form salvaged leather, Cobblers have contended with Cordwainers since at least the Middle Ages. In 16th century London the Cordwainers solved their conflicts with the Cobblers of that city by placing them under the powerful authority of the Cordwainer's guild, thus merging with them.

Whenever shoemakers have organized, they have shown a clear preference for the title 'Cordwainer,' conscious of the distinguished history and tradition it conveys. Today's Cordwainer is no exception. The current generation of boot and shoemakers includes a growing number of self-employed tradesmen and women, who having largely adopted early hand-sewn techniques supplemented by only a few simple machines out of economic necessity, continue to practice the traditional skills established centuries ago. In the face of declining domestic footwear production every year, it can be easily said that the true future of this trade lays in its past, and is being insured by the skilled hands of these modern Cordwainers.